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Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe and relatively uncommon disorder that can affect children.〔DSM-IV-TR (2000) American Psychiatric Association p. 129.〕 RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in most contexts. It can take the form of a persistent failure to initiate or respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way—known as the "inhibited form"—or can present itself as indiscriminate sociability, such as excessive familiarity with relative strangers—known as the "disinhibited form". The term is used in both the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10)〔World Health Organisation (1992) ''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10)''. Geneva: World health Organization.〕 and in the DSM-IV-TR, the revised fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM).〔 〕 In ICD-10, the inhibited form is called RAD, and the disinhibited form is called "disinhibited attachment disorder", or "DAD". In the DSM, both forms are called RAD; for ease of reference, this article will follow that convention and refer to both forms as reactive attachment disorder. RAD arises from a failure to form normal attachments to primary caregivers in early childhood. Such a failure could result from severe early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers between the ages of six months and three years, frequent change of caregivers, or a lack of caregiver responsiveness to a child's communicative efforts. Not all, or even a majority of such experiences, result in the disorder.〔Prior & Glaser (2006), pp. 218–219.〕 It is differentiated from pervasive developmental disorder or developmental delay and from possibly comorbid conditions such as intellectual disability, all of which can affect attachment behavior. The criteria for a diagnosis of a reactive attachment ''disorder'' are very different from the criteria used in assessment or categorization of attachment ''styles'' such as insecure or disorganized attachment. DSM-5, the fifth revised edition published in 2013, separates RAD into two separate disorders: reactive attachment disorder (previously referred to as the "inhibited" form), and social engagement disorder. Children with RAD are presumed to have grossly disturbed internal working models of relationships that may lead to interpersonal and behavioral difficulties in later life. There are few studies of long-term effects, and there is a lack of clarity about the presentation of the disorder beyond the age of five years.〔〔Prior & Glaser (2006), p. 228.〕 However, the opening of orphanages in Eastern Europe following the end of the Cold War in the early-1990s provided opportunities for research on infants and toddlers brought up in very deprived conditions. Such research broadened the understanding of the prevalence, causes, mechanism and assessment of disorders of attachment and led to efforts from the late-1990s onwards to develop treatment and prevention programs and better methods of assessment. Mainstream theorists in the field have proposed that a broader range of conditions arising from problems with attachment should be defined beyond current classifications.〔 〕 Mainstream treatment and prevention programs that target RAD and other problematic early attachment behaviors are based on attachment theory and concentrate on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver.〔Prior & Glaser (2006), p. 231.〕 Most such strategies are in the process of being evaluated. Mainstream practitioners and theorists have presented significant criticism of the diagnosis and treatment of alleged reactive attachment disorder or attachment disorder within the controversial field commonly known as attachment therapy. Attachment therapy has a scientifically unsupported theoretical base and uses diagnostic criteria or symptom lists unrelated to criteria under ICD-10 or DSM-IV-TR, or to attachment behaviors. A range of treatment approaches are used in attachment ''therapy'', some of which are physically and psychologically coercive, and considered to be antithetical to attachment ''theory''.〔O'Connor TG, Nilsen WJ (2005) "Models versus Metaphors in Translating Attachment Theory to the Clinic and Community". In Berlin LJ, Ziv Y, Amaya-Jackson L and Greenberg MT (Eds) ''Enhancing Early Attachments: Theory, research, intervention, and policy.'' pp. 313–26. The Guilford Press. Duke series in Child Development and Public Policy. (2005) ISBN 1-59385-470-6.〕 ==Signs and symptoms== Pediatricians are often the first health professionals to assess and raise suspicions of RAD in children with the disorder. The initial presentation varies according to the child's developmental and chronological age, although it always involves a disturbance in social interaction. Infants up to about 18–24 months ''may'' present with non-organic failure to thrive and display abnormal responsiveness to stimuli. Laboratory investigations will be unremarkable barring possible findings consistent with malnutrition or dehydration, while serum growth hormone levels will be normal or elevated. The core feature is severely inappropriate social relating by affected children. This can manifest itself in two ways: # Indiscriminate and excessive attempts to receive comfort and affection from any available adult, even relative strangers (older children and adolescents may also aim attempts at peers). # Extreme reluctance to initiate or accept comfort and affection, even from familiar adults, especially when distressed.〔Chaffin ''et al.'' (2006), p. 80. The APSAC Taskforce Report〕 While RAD is likely to occur in relation to neglectful and abusive treatment, automatic diagnoses on this basis alone cannot be made, as children can form stable attachments and social relationships despite marked abuse and neglect. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Reactive attachment disorder」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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